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Bioelectromagnetism

biological efects of microwave radiation was considered, medical applications of microwave diathermy

and the health hazards (Cook et al., 1980).

During the 1950s, increased use of microwave energy in diathermy, radars, and industrial equipment

stimulated interest in the biological efects of microwave energy. In the 1950s and 1960s, the research

activity of RF felds and microwaves in bioelectromagnetism had shifed from medical applications to

military use. Te research changed from medical applications such as diathermy to hazard identifca­

tion of microwaves. It plays deeply important roles in developing researches on the biological and health

efect of microwave exposure. With the rapid expanse of military applications of microwave energy, in

1957, the “Tri-Service Program” was initiated to investigate the biological efects of microwaves in order

to develop the safety standards of microwave exposure. Te primary concern of the Tri-Service program

which continued until 1960 was the hazard issue, not medical applications (Lin, 1994; Steneck, 1984).

Historically, the thermal efect of RF felds was important issue which is given by the temperature

rise due to RF feld energy absorption into the body. Tis thermal efect was the basis for setting safety

standards to limit exposure to RF feld.

Between 1953 and 1979, one of the Cold War afairs was the Moscow Signal episode which has

acquired important discussion on the interactions between RF felds and human health (Steneck, 1984).

During the Cold War, signals of low-level microwave radiations from nearby buildings were targeted

to the foors of the US embassy in Moscow. Although the existence of this microwave signal had been

kept secret, in 1976, a 2-year epidemiological study was conducted by the US Department of State and

the Johns Hopkins University (Lin, 2017). Te study involved the Moscow embassy’s 1,827 person stafs

and their families, 3,000 persons and 2,561 employees and their families, 5,000 persons as a control

population from other Eastern US embassies including Belgrade, Budapest, Leningrad, and Prague.

Te purpose of this study was to assess any diference in morbidity and mortality between the Moscow

embassy and the control population. Afer the investigation, in 1978, the report of this study appeared.

Te conclusion was that the Moscow embassy and the other groups did not signifcantly difer in overall

and specifc mortality, and no compelling evidence was observed to implicate the Moscow embassy

microwave signals in any adverse health efects. In addition, the study pointed out that the study popula­

tion was relatively young, and it might have been too early to detect long-term health and mortality out­

comes (Lin, 2017). Forty years afer the publication of the 1978s epidemiological study, Jose A. Martinez,

researcher of the Technical University of Cartagena, Spain, pointed out, while reviewing the original

data and applying several Fisher exact tests, that the results clearly show a signifcantly worse health

status for the Moscow group (for both male and females), as well as for the overall sample (Martinez,

2019). Te episode of the Moscow signal is still a controversy.

Under the asking of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Department of Health and

Human Service, the National Academies organized a workshop to identify research needs and gaps in

knowledge of the biological efects and adverse health outcomes due to exposure to RF energy from

wireless communications devices. Te frst cellular phone was invented in 1973 by the engineer Martin

Cooper. It weighted 1.1 kg and could be used for about 30 min. Ten years later, Motorola released com­

mercially its frst mobile phone. Afer the development of the frst cellular phone, mobile phone tech­

nologies became widespread. Te National Academy organized a seven-member committee to plan the

workshop. Te workshop was held on August 7–9, 2007, in Washington, DC. Te report on the research

needs and gaps identifed by the committee was published by National Research Council (NAC, 2008).

Te important research needs were found by the committee, included the following ten issues:

1) Characterization of exposure to juveniles, children, pregnant women, and fetuses from personal

wireless devices and RF felds from base station antennas, 2) Characterization of radiated electro­

magnetic felds for typical multiple-element base station antennas and exposure to afected indi­

viduals, 3) Characterization of the dosimetry of evolving antenna confgurations for cell phones

and text messaging devices, 4) Prospective epidemiologic cohort studies of children and preg­

nant women, 5) Epidemiologic case-control studies and childhood cancer, including brain cancer,